Sliding scale of certainty

Even a photograph is not seeing something with your own eyes.

It still is second-hand information, which could be manipulated. Therefore, its level of certainty is lesser compared to

Conclusions

  • The best conclusions are those we can make from direct knowledge.
  • If we are unable to access direct knowledge we should recognize this - acknowledge that its level of certainty is not less than direct knowledge.
  • If we are unable to access direct knowledge and need to make a conclusion to inform our actions, then we need to learn how to evaluate the credibility of the secondary source.